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\begin{document}
\thispagestyle{empty}
\begin{center}
Hebrew University of Jerusalem\\
Faculty of Humanities\\
Department of Linguistics
\end{center}

\vfill

\begin{center}
	\Large Some syntactic structures in the\\Welsh translation of Harry~Potter
\end{center}

\vfill

\noindent
Final assignment for course № 41140: “Problems in the Theory of Translation”

~

\noindent
Submitted to: Larissa Naiditch.\\
Jehuda Ronen.

\vfill

\begin{center}
	Jerusalem · Summer 2008
\end{center}

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\setcounter{section}{-1}
\section{Introduction}
In his paper, “Translation as a Decision Process” (\citet{Levy.J:1967:translation}), Jeří Levý distinguish between definition of translation from a \emph{teleological} point of view (which is a \emph{process of communication}: to impart the knowledge of the original text in another medium) and from a \emph{pragmatic}\footnote{I.e.\ the working situation of the translator.} point of view (which is a \emph{decision process}\footnote{In his words (\citet[p.~1171]{Levy.J:1967:translation}):\begin{quote}a series of a certain numbers of consecutive situations — moves, as in a game — situations imposed on the translator the necessity of choosing among a certain (and very often exactly definable) number of alternatives.\end{quote}}, suggesting a game-theoretic\footnote{See \url{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_theory}.} model for translation).

From a \emph{semiologic} (semiotic, structuralistic) point of view, these two processes can be seen as one, since \emph{communication} is a process of \emph{decision making}: choosing between mutually exclusive signs (i.e.\ a paradigm) which constitute a system. Thus, a translator should be regarded as the \emph{author} (speaker, writer) of the translated text, since s/he is the one who chooses the signs in the target language, based on the original text. Schematically, this can be outlined as:

\begin{center}
	\textsc{author} \gl{$\rightarrow$}{writes} original text $\rightarrow$ \textsc{translator} \gl{$\rightarrow$}{writes} translated text
\end{center}

\noindent
Those choices are regarded by Levý as \emph{consecutive}. He compares the process of translation to a game (‘a game with complete information’\footnote{See \url{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_information}.}) in which ‘every succeeding move is influenced by the knowledge of previous decisions and by the situation which resulted from them (e.g., chess, but not card games)’. As I see it, this holds for the \emph{receiver} (hearer/reader) of the translated text, who decipher the text linearly, but not to its \emph{author} (=translator) who – hopefully – doesn't translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but in a “top-down” manner, having knowledge of the text as a whole.

%One important feature (or a set of features) of narrative text is its \emph{staging}: the way the author chooses to put*** the events together in the text. These features are of prime importance in text-linguistic analysis. In a translated text, the one who (re-)stages the events is the translator, using literary-linguistic devices provided by the target language. Thus, in my opinion a good translation is one who uses these devices wisely (that is, practicing a dynamic-equivalence approach; see \citet{Nida.E:1964:science-translating}).

As mentioned above, the author of a translated text is its translator. The translation is made based on the original text, in the \emph{source language}, but using literary-linguistic devices provided by the \emph{target language}. Thus, in my opinion a good translation is one which uses these devices wisely (that is, practicing a dynamic-equivalence approach; see \citet{Nida.E:1964:science-translating}).

In this sense, the Welsh translation of the first novel in the Harry Potter series\footnote{See \citet{Rowling.J:2003:harri_maen} and \citet{Rowling.J:2001:harry_philosopher} for translation and original, respectively. So far, only the first novel was published; a translation of the second one, ‘Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets’, is said to be in progress.} is a good translation: it is a fluent Welsh text which uses native Welsh narrative devices in a natural seamless way. In the following pages I will examine some features of Welsh grammar in the text\footnote{Namely, the \C{a+\textsc{infinitive}} construction and the \C{ti}:\C{chi} distinction, and – to a lesser extent – constructions of nominal predication.} in order to justify this claim. These grammatical features are interesting subjects for examination, as they all have no exact equivalents in English: the translator, Emily Huws\footnote{See \url{http://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_Huws} (in Welsh).}, had a \emph{richer} (or, at least, \emph{different}) system to choose signs from than the one of the source language. Schematically, this can be outlined as:

\begin{center}
	\begin{tabular}{cc}
		\emph{English} & \emph{Welsh}\\
		\begin{tabular}{|c|}
			a\\
			b
		\end{tabular} &
		\begin{tabular}{|c|}
			c\\
			d\\
			e
		\end{tabular}
	\end{tabular}
\end{center}

\noindent
Analysing what choices the translation has made has a ‘practical’ outcome: it offers not only a better understanding of the Welsh text, but improves the understanding of the \emph{original} text as well, since the latter is interpreted through the translator's perception; just as passing a beam of light through a prism can reveal hidden qualities of the light, dispersing it into the rainbow of colours.





\section{\textsc{preterite} a \textsc{infinitive}}

\subsection{Use in Welsh}

\newcommand{\glpret}[1]{\gl{#1}{\textsc{pret.}}}
\newcommand{\glinf}[1]{\gl{#1}{\textsc{inf.}}}


One important set of features of narrative text is its \emph{staging}: the way the author chooses to put the events together in the text. These features are of prime importance in text-linguistic analysis. In a translated text the translator (re-)stages the narrative according to the devices provided by the target language. Many of the text-linguistic signs used for narrative staging are subtle in meaning, as they “fine-tune” the scene.

Welsh has an exceptionally rich system of narrative tenses, consisting (partly) of many synthetic and periphrastic verb forms, converbs (verb form of adverbial paradigmatic privilege), \textsc{presentative}+\textsc{converb} complexes, the \C{a}+\textsc{infinitive} form (which is the subject of this section) among others. Thus, translating a Modern~English narrative, which in itself has a rich system of narrative tenses, into Welsh poses an interesting challenge.

\citet[§1.1]{Shisha-Halevy.A:1997:infinitive-aorist} gives an account of the syntagmatics and paradigmatics of the construction in question, which consists of a verb in the preterite form, the conjunction \C{\gl{a}{and}} and an infinitive (e.g., literally, ‘He \glpret{sat} and \glinf{(to) sing}’). He gives the following five negative statements about its syntagmatics (\citet[pp.~65–66]{Shisha-Halevy.A:1997:infinitive-aorist}):
%\citet[§1.1]{Shisha-Halevy.A:1997:infinitive-aorist} gives a *** of the syntagmatics and paradigmatics of the construction in question, which consists of a verb in the preterite form, \C{\gl{a}{and}} and an infinitive (e.g., literally, ‘He \glpret{sat} and \glinf{(to) sing}’.). He gives the five following negative statements about its syntagmatics (\citet[pp.~65–66]{Shisha-Halevy.A:1997:infinitive-aorist}):

\begin{quote}%validated
	\small
	\begin{enumerate}
		\item Usually a single infinitive is combined with the finite verb phrase, never more than two. Thus, no concatenation, nor a catalogic listing/piling of events are in evidence: the compound-event form is constituted by two to three component lexemes.
		\item No negativing, either of finite clause or of infinitive: the compound event is a form of narrative affirmation.\footnote{For negation in narrative as non-event, see \citet[§4.1.4]{Fleischman.S:1990:tense}. [J.R.]}
		\item No assertion of new agent with infinitive[,] no \C{i}-agent\footnote{The thematic part of the ‘\C{i} \textit{cum infinitivo}’ construction: a Welsh construction which is comparable to some extent with the I.E.\ \textit{accusativus cum infinitivo}. Typically of substantival commutability (a ‘\textit{that}-form’), e.g.\ \C{\gl{i}{for}'\gl{r}{the} \gl{dyn}{man} \gl{ganu}{sing}}, approximately ‘that the man sings’ (lit.\ ‘for the man (to) sing’). [J.R.]} at all; there is no theme-switching.
		\item Rare occurrence in the descriptive channels of the narrative (thus, the infinitive is considerably rarer in linkage to the imperfect, which is in my examples eventual-habitative rather than descriptive), or in the “narrator's channel”; the compound event is a staging device of the Evolution, not of the Comment Mode in narrative.
		\item The auxiliary \C{bod}\footnote{‘to be’. Used in periphrasis (comparable, to some extent, with Mod.~Eng.\ \emph{be} in ‘be singing’). [J.R.]} is excluded from the compound-event infinitive inventory.
	\end{enumerate}
\end{quote}

\noindent
Paradigmatically, it is opposed to \C{\textsc{preterite}+\textsc{preterite}}. Compare the two following examples:

\begin{examples}
	\item From \citet{Roberts.K:1960:lon-wen}; numbered 5 in \citet{Shisha-Halevy.A:1997:infinitive-aorist}:
		\begin{bilingquote} % validated
			\transline
			{\gl{\hl{Eisteddodd}}{\glpret{sat}} \gl{wrth}{by, with} \gl{y}{the} piano \gl{\hl{a}}{and} \gl{\hl{chanu}}{\glinf{play}} Noctwrn \gl{gan}{by} Chopin[.]}
			{She sat down to the piano and played a Nocturn by Chopin.}
		\end{bilingquote}
	\item From \citet{Roberts.K:1972:gobaith}; numbered 24 in \citet{Shisha-Halevy.A:1997:infinitive-aorist}:
		\begin{bilingquote} % validated
			\transline
			{\gl{\hl{Cerddodd}}{\glpret{walked}} \gl{yn}{in} \gl{fwriadus}{purposive} \gl{at}{to} \gl{y}{the} piano. \gl{\hl{Cododd}}{\glpret{raised}} \gl{ei}{his} \gl{gaead}{lid}. \gl{\hl{Eisteddodd}}{\glpret{sat}} \gl{wrtho}{by him}. \gl{\hl{Canodd}}{\glpret{played}} “Noctwrn Alfan”.}
			{She went purposefully to the piano. She raised its lid. She sat down at it. She played “Alfan's Nocturn”.}
		\end{bilingquote}
\end{examples}

\noindent
The first one is an example of \C{\textsc{preterite}+\textsc{infinitive}}, and the second one is of \C{\textsc{preterite}+\textsc{preterite}}, with several preterite\footnote{\C{-odd} is the regular 3sg.~pret.\ suffix.} forms sequentially. Thus, writing narrative in Welsh, one \emph{has to choose} whether to use the preterite or the infinitive form\footnote{Or other forms, which are beyond the scope of this assignment.} in every position in which the opposition exists.\footnote{Just as someone writing a Slavic language has to choose an aspect for (theoretically) every verb.} This is crucially important for our interest here, since the translator has to \emph{choose} between these forms.

Of the function of the construction in question \citet[§1.1.3]{Shisha-Halevy.A:1997:infinitive-aorist} says:\footnote{{For a general survey of juncture features in Welsh, see \citet{Shisha-Halevy.A:2003:juncture-welsh}.}}

\begin{quote} % validated
	\small
	[…] a complex and [indeed] compound narrative event, a special “micro-episode” or condensed episode, in which the finite verb expresses the (“main”) action anchored in the plot mainstream (precisely in the sense that a grammatical nucleus syntagmatically “anchors” its phrase as a paradigmatic word-class), while it is the infinitive that carries the semantic “main event”, the semantic core in the staging of narrative development (in its own complex, the infinitive is of course a closing boundary signal). The finite verb, for its part, while still grammatically nuclear, is in this respect subsidiary or tributary, a support for the sequel. Two or at most three “constituent acts” are signalled here as significantly belonging together; a special significance being signalled by their very conjunction as constituents of a single “hyper-event”.
\end{quote}

\subsection{Examples from the text}

Let us now go through the following examples.\footnote{I use the pattern $X$/$Y$ for indicating references in \citet{Rowling.J:2003:harri_maen}: $X$ indicates the page, and $Y$ the paragraph.} As one can see, the construction occurs about once a page; it is clearly a \emph{marked} form, with the concatenating preterite as the unmarked form.

\begin{examples}
	 \item 10/4:
		 \begin{bilingquote}
			 \transline
			 {\gl{\hl{Tynnodd}}{\glpret{pulled}} \gl{yr}{the} \gl{Athro}{professor} McGonagal \gl{hances}{handkerchief} \gl{boced}{pocket} \gl{les}{lace} \gl{allan}{out} \gl{\hl{a}}{and} \gl{\hl{sychu}}{\glinf{wipe, dry}} \gl{ei}{her} \gl{llygaid}{eyes} \gl{o}{of(f)} \gl{dan}{under} \gl{ei}{her} \gl{sbectol}{spectacles}. […]}
			 {Professor McGonagall \hl{pulled} out a lace handkerchief \hl{and dabbed} at her eyes beneath her spectacles. […]}
		 \end{bilingquote}

		 The pulling of the handkerchief (\textsc{preterite}) is subsidiary to the wiping of her eyes (\C{a}+\textsc{infinitive}) using it. These two ‘sub-events’ are signalled — as Shisha-Halevy puts it — as significantly belonging together, as constituents of a single ‘hyper-event’.

%	\item 10/4:
%		\begin{bilingquote}
%			\transline
%			{\gl{\hl{Snwffiodd}}{sniffed} Dumbledore \gl{yn}{in} \gl{uchel}{loud} \gl{wrth}{with} \gl{dynnu}{pull} \gl{oriawr}{watch} \gl{aur}{gold} \gl{o}{off}'\gl{i}{his} \gl{boced}{pocket} \gl{\hl{a}}{and}'\gl{i}{her} \gl{\hl{harchwilio}}{examine}.}
%			{Dumbledore gave a great sniff as he took a golden watch from his pocket and examined it.}
%		\end{bilingquote}

	\item 11/2:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{\gl{Agorodd}{opened} \gl{yr}{the} \gl{Athro}{professor} McGonagal \gl{ei}{her} \gl{cheg}{mouth}, \gl{ond}{but} \gl{\hl{newidiodd}}{\glpret{changed}} \gl{ei}{her} \gl{meddwl}{mind}, \gl{\hl{llyncu}}{\glinf{swallow}} \gl{\hl{a}}{and} \gl{\hl{dweud}}{\glinf{say}}, ‘[…]’ […]}
			{Professor McGonagall opened her mouth, \hl{changed} her mind, \hl{swallowed}, and then \hl{said}, “[…]” […]}
		\end{bilingquote}

		One action leads to the following one, consisting together a complex event of three parts, in which the main and final event is Professor McGonagall's speaking.
\end{examples}

The following examples are self-evident: they are all of the same basic type and have similar properties.

\begin{examples}
	\item 12/14:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{\gl{Gan}{by} \gl{sychu}{dry} \gl{ei}{his} \gl{lygaid}{eyes} \gl{ar}{on} \gl{lawes}{sleeve} \gl{ei}{his} \gl{gôt}{coat}, \gl{\hl{neidiodd}}{\glpret{jumped}} Hagrid \gl{ar}{on} \gl{gefn}{back} y \gl{motor-beic}{motorbike} \gl{\hl{a}}{and} \gl{\hl{rhoi}}{\glinf{give, put}} \gl{cic}{kick} \gl{i}{to} \gl{ddeffro}{wake}\gl{'r}{the} \gl{peiriant}{engine}. \gl{\hl{Cododd}}{\glpret{rised}} \gl{i}{to}\gl{'r}{the} \gl{awyr}{air} \gl{gan}{by} \gl{ruo}{roar} \gl{\hl{a}}{and} \gl{\hl{diflannu}}{\glinf{disappear}} \gl{i}{to}\gl{'r}{the} \gl{nos}{night}.}
			{Wiping his streaming eyes on his jacket sleeve, Hagrid \hl{swung} himself on to the motorbike \hl{and kicked} the engine into life; with a roar it \hl{rose} into the air and off into the night.}
		\end{bilingquote}

	\item 13/1:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{\gl{\hl{Trodd}}{\glpret{turned}} Dumbledore \gl{\hl{a}}{and} \gl{\hl{cherdded}}{\glinf{walk}} \gl{yn ôl}{aback} \gl{i lawr}{down} \gl{y}{the} \gl{stryd}{street}. \gl{Ar}{on} \gl{y}{the} \gl{gornel}{corner} \gl{\hl{arhosodd}}{\glpret{stopped}} \gl{\hl{a}}{and} \gl{\hl{thynnu}}{\glinf{pull}}\gl{'r}{the} \gl{Diffoddwr}{Put-Outer} \gl{arian}{silver} \gl{allan}{out}.}
			{Dumbledore \hl{turned} and \hl{walked} back down the street. On the corner he \hl{stopped} and \hl{took} out the silver Put-Outer.}
		\end{bilingquote}
	
	\item 14/5:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{{\doublechecked}\gl{\hl{Rowliodd}}{\glpret{rolled}} \gl{ar}{on} \gl{ei}{his} \gl{gefn}{back} \gl{\hl{a}}{and} \gl{\hl{cheisio}}{\glinf{try}} \gl{cofio}{remember} \gl{am}{about} \gl{beth}{what} \gl{roedd}{was} \gl{o}{he} \gl{wedi}{after} \gl{bod}{be} \gl{yn}{in} \gl{breuddwydio}{dream}.}
			{{\doublechecked}He \hl{rolled} on to his back and \hl{tried} to remember the dream he had been having.}
		\end{bilingquote}

	\item 15/5:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{[…] \gl{\hl{Cododd}}{\glpret{got up}} Harri \gl{o}{from}\gl{'r}{the} \gl{gwely}{bed} \gl{yn}{in} \gl{araf}{slow} \gl{\hl{a}}{and} \gl{\hl{dechrau}}{\glinf{start}} \gl{chwilio}{search} \gl{am}{about, for} \gl{ei}{his} \gl{sanau}{socks}. […]}
			{{\doublechecked}[…] Harry \hl{got} slowly out of bed and \hl{started} looking for socks. […]}
		\end{bilingquote}
\end{examples}

It is worth noting that \emph{all} occurrences of \C{a}+\textsc{infinitive} are translations of non-initial verbs with no independent (pro)noun as their subject. The other direction, of course, isn't true: \emph{not all} occurrences of these forms are translated with \C{a}+\textsc{infinitive} (most of them are translated with \C{a}+\textsc{preterite}).

%\subsection{Questionable***}

%\begin{examples}
%	\item 10/7:
%		\begin{bilingquote}
%			\transline
%			{‘[…]’ \gl{gwaeddodd}{cried} \gl{yr}{the} \gl{Athro}{professor} McGonagal, \gl{gan}{by} \gl{neidio}{jump} \gl{ar}{on} \gl{ei}{her} \gl{thraed}{feet} \gl{a}{and} \gl{phwyntio}{point} \gl{at}{to} \gl{rif}{number} \gl{pedwar}{four}. […]}
%			{“[…]” cried Professor McGonagall, jumping to her feet and pointing at number four […]}
%		\end{bilingquote}
%\end{examples}

\section{ti:chi:(chdi)}

While the previous section belonged inherently to the \emph{evolution mode}\footnote{\citet[p.~234]{Shisha-Halevy.A:1998:roberts} defines it in a terminological glossary as:\begin{quote}\textbf{Evolution Mode} (in narrative grammar): a major constituent of the macro-structure of narrative. Markedly diegetic, dynamic and vectored, it carries the course and unfolding of the plot as a succession or sequelling of narrative events (the ‘foreground’), or concomitant information on situational or eventual framework of such succession.\end{quote}} of the \emph{narrative} texteme, this one belongs with literary-linguistic  units that share characteristics with the \emph{dialogue}: the dialogue \textit{per se} or references to a true or ‘imaginary’ (=grammatical?) interlocutor in the \emph{comment mode}\footnote{\citet[p.~233]{Shisha-Halevy.A:1998:roberts}:\begin{quote}\textbf{Comment Mode} (in narrative grammar): It is extrinsic to the plot (but often internal to the narrator, in the sense of ‘internal information’), and elaborates, comments, resumes, explains, gives reasons for acts and states of the plot and information on prior and anterior action, or meta-narrative statements, such as reasons for narrative statements made or summing-ups.\end{quote}} (see §\ref{tichi-narrator-reader} and §\ref{tichi-free_indirect_speech}).

The second person in Welsh makes a ‘T-V distinction’ that shares some similarities with that of French: \C{ti} is the \emph{informal/familiar} \emph{singular} second person personal pronoun (compare with French \textit{tu}) and \C{chi} covers the \emph{formal} \emph{singular} and the \emph{plural} (which doesn't distinguish formality; compare with French \textit{vous}). Colloquial Northern Welsh has a third form, \C{chdi} (pronounced {\fontspec{Gentium}/χtiː/}), which seems like combination of \C{chi} + \C{ti};\footnote{See \citet[§4.129.c]{Thomas.P:2005:gramadeg}.}; I have found no occurrences of \C{chdi} in the corpus, although a more comprehensive search may show some occurrences. As far as I know, this topic — the (socio-)linguistic \textit{valeur} of these signs in Welsh — was never thoroughly described.

This distinction is of special relevance to our issue here. Contemporary Modern Literary English does not make a T-V distinction. Therefore, the translator has to interpret the social relations between characters and to decide how one character will address another one \emph{every time} she or he addresses an interlocutor (using the English only contemporary form \textit{you}). Decisions like this add information that was not provided by the original text.

\subsection{You-Know-Who}

\newcommand{\glti}[1]{\gl{#1}{\textsc{ti}}}
\newcommand{\glchi}[1]{\gl{#1}{\textsc{chi}}}

The primary antagonist of the Harry Potter series is Lord Voldemort. The name ‘Voldemort’ is so feared in the wizarding world that most of the characters call him ‘You-Know-Who’ or ‘He-Who-Must-Not-Be-Named’. The former is relevant to our interest. In English, this name is one undividable unit\footnote{See \citet{Shisha-Halevy.A:1989:proper-name} for more about the syntactic features of the proper name.}, but in Welsh the ‘you’ element in ‘\emph{You}-Know-Who’ varies according to the social relation between the speaker and the hearer in the scene: \C{\gl{Wyddost}{\glti{you know}}-\gl{Ti}{\glti{you}}-\gl{Pwy}{who}} uses the informal/familiar form, and \C{\gl{Wyddoch}{\glchi{you know}}-\gl{Chi}{\glchi{you}}-\gl{Pwy}{who}} is the formal one.

Let us consider some of the occurrences of ‘\C{Wyddost-Ti-Pwy}’ and ‘\C{Wyddoch-Chi-Pwy’}:
\begin{itemize}
	\item \hl{Wyddost-Ti-Pwy}:
		\begin{itemize}
			\item Professor McGonagall $\rightarrow$ Dumbledore. (8/6, 8/10, 8/12 (‘Wyddost-Ti — O! […]’))
			\item Dumbledore $\rightarrow$ Professor McGonagall. (8/11)
			\item Hagrid $\rightarrow$ Harry Potter. (43/1, 43/2, 43/5, 62/10)
			\item Harry Potter $\rightarrow$ Hagrid. (43/7, 62/11)
		\end{itemize}
		Professor McGonagall and Dumbledore use the \C{ti} form when talking with each other; so do Harry Potter and Hagrid. It would be extremely interesting to map all the \C{ti}-\C{chi} relations between characters, and find whether there are equivalence classes\footnote{See \url{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_class}.} of characters (\textit{students} and \textit{teachers}?).
	\item \hl{Wyddoch-Chi-Pwy}:
		\begin{itemize}
			\item A man in a violet cloak $\rightarrow$ Vernon Dursley. (4/3)

				The \C{chi} form is usually used when addressing a stranger, as the case is here.
			\item Harry Potter $\rightarrow$ Dumbledore. (236/10)

				Dumbledore is of a superior social rank to Harry's.
		\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}

\subsection{Examples from the text}

As in other languages making a similar distinction, the \C{ti}-\C{chi} relation between characters is not necessarily fixed: for example, two persons who are ‘\C{ti}-persons’ in private may use \C{chi} in a formal situation. In the limited extent of this examination I have found no such case, but it may probably be a matter of extending the corpus to the whole book to find such a case.

\subsubsection{The narrator $\rightarrow$ the reader}
\label{tichi-narrator-reader}

In the first chapter the author/narrator addresses the reader (or a generic \emph{you}) twice. The \C{chi} form is used, possibly due to a similar reason for its use when the stranger addresses Vernon Dursley in Ex.~\ref{ex:tichi-stranger-dursley}: the reader is unknown to the author/narrator.

\begin{examples}
	\item 1/1 (absolute beginning):
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{\gl{Broliai}{bragged} Mr \gl{a}{and} Mrs Dursley, \gl{rhif}{number} \gl{pedwar}{four} Privet Drive, \gl{eu}{their} \gl{bod}{be} \gl{nhw}{they}\gl{'n}{in} \gl{deulu}{family} \gl{cwbl}{whole, absolute} \gl{normal}{normal}, \gl{diolch}{thank} \gl{yn}{in} \gl{fawr}{big} \gl{iawn}{right} \gl{\hl{ichi}}{to \gl{you}{chi}}.}
			{{\doublechecked}Mr and Mrs Dursley of number four, Privet Drive, were proud to say that they were perfectly normal, thank \hl{you} very much.}
		\end{bilingquote}

	\item 13/4 (the epilogue of the first chapter):
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{[…] Privet Drive […], \gl{y}{the} \gl{lle}{place} \gl{olaf}{last} \gl{yn}{in} \gl{y}{the} \gl{byd}{world} \gl{y}{that} \gl{\hl{byddech}}{you would be} \gl{\hl{chi}}{\gl{you}{chi}}\gl{'n}{in} \gl{disgwyl}{expect} \gl{i}{to} \gl{unrhyw}{any} \gl{beth}{thing} \gl{syfrdanol}{astonishing} \gl{ddigwydd}{happen}. […]}
			{{\doublechecked}[…] Privet Drive […], the very last place \hl{you} would expect astonishing things to happen. […]}
		\end{bilingquote}
\end{examples}

Note that in these two examples the second person has no actual referent: in the first one the author/narrator doesn't actually thank the reader, and in the second one the use is as a \emph{generic pronoun}\footnote{In Russian, on the other hand, only the (homonymic) informal singular \Rus{ты} serves as a generic pronoun; as far as I know, there is not generic \Rus{Вы}/\Rus{вы}.}.

\subsubsection{Vernon Dursley's free indirect speech}
\label{tichi-free_indirect_speech}
The following example is of more complex nature than the others: it has no evident addresser or addressee.

It seems as if it is a kind of ‘free indirect speech’ (\textit{discours indirect libre}, \textit{Erlebte Rede}; see \citet{Banfield.A:1982:unspeakable} and \citet[§7.3]{Fleischman.S:1990:tense}).

\begin{examples}
	\item 2/5:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{\gl{Fedrai}{couldn't} Mr Dursley \gl{ddim}{Fr. \textit{pas}} \gl{dioddef}{suffer, bear} \gl{pobl}{people} \gl{a}{\gram{rel.}} \gl{wisgai}{wear} \gl{ddillad}{clothes} \gl{anarferol}{unusual} — \gl{y}{the} \gl{fath}{kind} \gl{bethau}{things} \gl{a}{\gram{rel.}} \gl{\hl{welwch}}{\gl{you}{chi} see} \gl{\hl{chi}}{\gl{you}{chi}} \gl{am}{about, on} \gl{bobl}{people} \gl{ifanc}{young}!}
			{{\doublechecked}Mr Dursley couldn't bear people who dressed in funny clothes — the get-ups \hl{you} saw on young people!}
		\end{bilingquote}
\end{examples}

Who is the speaker of this utterance (‘\C{y fath bethau a welwch chi am bobl ifanc}’ / ‘the get-ups you saw\footnote{The tense here is especially curious: why past?} on young people!‘)? Who is the addressee?

A comprehensive description of the \C{ti}-\C{chi} distinction in such utterances may not only benefit our understanding of the \C{ti}-\C{chi} distinction, but also of the Welsh free indirect speech in general, using excplicit signs in order to clarify its structure and function.

\subsubsection{A man in a violet cloak $\rightarrow$ Vernon Dursley}

\begin{examples}
	\item 4/3:\label{ex:tichi-stranger-dursley}
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{‘\gl{\hl{Peidiwch}}{\gl{\gram{neg.~imp.}}{chi}} \gl{ag}{with} \gl{ymddiheuro}{apologise}, \gl{syr}{sir}. \gl{oherwydd}{because} \gl{fedrai}{couldn't} \gl{dim}{Fr. \textit{pas}} \gl{byd}{world} \gl{fy}{my} \gl{nghynhyrfu}{agitate} \gl{i}{I} \gl{heddiw}{today}! \gl{\hl{Llawenhewch}}{\gl{rejoice}{chi}!}, \gl{oherwydd}{because} \gl{mae}{is} \gl{\hl{Wyddoch}}{\gl{you}{chi} know}-\gl{\hl{Chi}}{\gl{you}{chi}}-\gl{Pwy}{who} \gl{wedi}{after} \gl{mynd}{go} \gl{o'r diwedd}{at last}! \gl{Dylai}{should} \gl{hyd yn oed}{even} \gl{Myglars}{Muggles} \gl{fel}{like} \gl{\hl{chi}}{\gl{you}{chi}} \gl{fod}{be} \gl{yn}{in} \gl{dathlu}{celebrate}\gl{'r}{the} \gl{diwrnod}{day} \gl{hapus}{happy}, \gl{hapus}{happy} \gl{hwn}{this}!’}
			{{\doublechecked}‘\hl{Don't} be sorry, my dear sir, for nothing could upset me today! \hl{Rejoice}, for \hl{You}-Know-Who has gone at last! Even Muggles like \hl{yourself} should be celebrating, this happy, happy day!’}
		\end{bilingquote}
\end{examples}

\subsubsection{Vernon Dursley $\rightarrow$ Petunia Dursley}

Here Vernon Dursley addresses his wife using a \C{ti} form. In spoken Welsh, however, partners can address one another using \C{chi} without an emotional distance, even in private. As mentioned above, this topic requires further research.

\begin{examples}
	\item 5/5:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{{\doublechecked}‘\gl{Ym}{‘er’, ‘\Hebrew{אהמ}’} — Petiwnia, \gl{cariad}{dear} — \gl{\hl{glywaist}}{\gl{you}{ti} heard} \gl{\hl{ti}}{\gl{you}{ti}} \gl{rywbeth}{something} \gl{gan}{by, from} \gl{\hl{dy}}{your} \gl{chwaer}{sister} \gl{yn}{in} \gl{ddiweddar}{recent}?’}
			{{\doublechecked}‘Er — Petunia, dear — \hl{you} haven't heard from \hl{your} sister lately, have you?’}
		\end{bilingquote}
	
	\item 5/10:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{‘\gl{Wel}{well}, \gl{rhyw}{some, certain} \gl{feddwl}{thought} \gl{wnes}{that I made} \gl{i}{I}… \gl{ella}{maybe}… \gl{fod}{be} \gl{ganddo}{by it (by him)} \gl{rywbeth}{something} \gl{i}{to}\gl{'w}{its (his)} \gl{wneud}{do} \gl{efo}{with}… \gl{\hl{wyddost}}{\gl{you}{ti} know} \gl{\hl{ti}}{\gl{you}{ti}}… \emph{ei chriw hi}.’}
			{{\doublechecked}‘Well, I just thought… maybe… it was something to do with \hl{you} know… \emph{her lot}.’}
		\end{bilingquote}
\end{examples}


\subsubsection{Petunia Dursley $\rightarrow$ Harry Potter}

The Dursleys, of course, address Harry Potter using \C{ti}.

\begin{examples}
	\item 14/3:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{‘\gl{\hl{Cod}}{\gl{Get up!}{ti}}! \gl{Y}{the} \gl{munud}{minute} \gl{yma}{here}!’}
			{{\doublechecked}‘Up! Get up! Now!’}
		\end{bilingquote}
	
	\item 14/7:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{‘\gl{\hl{Wyt ti}}{\gl{you}{ti}'re} \gl{wedi}{after} \gl{codi}{get up} \gl{bellach}{now}?’ \gl{gwaeddodd}{shouted}.}
			{{\doublechecked}‘Are \hl{you} up yet?’ she demanded.}
		\end{bilingquote}

	\item 15/1:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{‘Wel \gl{\hl{brysia}}{\gl{hurry!}{ti}}, \gl{dwi}{I'm} \gl{isio}{want} \gl{i}{for} \gl{\hl{ti}}{\gl{you}{ti}} \gl{edrych}{look} \gl{ar ôl}{after} \gl{y}{the} \gl{cig moch}{backon}. \gl{A}{and} \gl{\hl{phaid}}{\gl{\gram{neg.~imp.}}{ti}} \gl{\hl{ti}}{\gl{you}{ti}} \gl{â}{with} \gl{meiddio}{dare} \gl{gadael}{let} \gl{iddo}{for it (=him)} \gl{losgi}{burn}; […]}
			{‘Well, \hl{get} a move on, I want \hl{you} to look after the bacon. And don't \hl{you} dare let it burn, […]}
		\end{bilingquote}
\end{examples}

\subsubsection{Vernon Dursley $\rightarrow$ Harry Potter}

\begin{examples}
	\item 16/2:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{{\doublechecked}‘\gl{\hl{Rho}}{\gl{put!}{ti}} \gl{grib}{comb} \gl{drwy}{through} \gl{\hl{dy}}{\gl{your}{ti}} \gl{wallt}{hair}, \gl{wir}{really}!’ \gl{oedd}{was} \gl{ei}{his} \gl{gyfarchiad}{greeting} \gl{boreol}{morning (\gram{adj.})}.}
			{{\doublechecked}‘\hl{Comb} \hl{your} hair!’ he barked, by the way of a morning greeting.}
		\end{bilingquote}
\end{examples}



\section{Nominal predication (working notes)}

This topic requires a further research in Welsh itself; therefore, I give here only a preliminary sketch of it in translated Welsh.

\noibidem\citet[§3]{Shisha-Halevy.A:1998:roberts} gives an account of some aspects of nominal predication in Welsh. This account doesn't cover all of the structures used for nominal predication; it knowingly excludes a description of the forms which contain ‘\C{(r)oedd}’\footnote{Generally translatable by Mod.~Eng.\ \emph{was}, but of a different nature.} (as opposed to \C{yw}/\C{ydi} and \C{mae}). Shisha-Halevy distinguish the nominal sentence (which have some (sub-)patterns) from the ‘\C{yn} nominal rhemes’. Explaining the structure and function of these is far beyond the extent of this assignment, but the proposed difference between these is, in general, that the nominal sentence predicates a noun \emph{inherently} (comparable with Spanish \textit{ser}), while the ‘\C{yn}-structure’ (which is based upon the adverbial clause-model, that is a clause with an adverb as its rheme, here with a circumstantially (=adverbially)-converted noun as its rheme) — when predicating a noun — is of \emph{incidental} nature (comparable with Spanish \textit{estar}).

Both structures are used to translate the English nominal predication with \emph{be} (e.g.\ ‘he is a man’). Thus, the translator has to choose between these structure when translating those English utterances.

If the inherent-:incidental-predication distinction truly holds\footnote{As far as I know, there is no relevant research on this topic except \noibidem\citet[§3]{Shisha-Halevy.A:1998:roberts}.} to ‘\C{(r)oedd}’-structures, examples \ref{ex:cyfarwyddwr cwmni oedd VD} and \ref{ex:yn chwaer} has an interesting (and amusing!) meaning in Welsh:
\begin{itemize}
	\item Ex.~\ref{ex:cyfarwyddwr cwmni oedd VD}: One would expect a person's profession to be incidental (after all, one can leave one profession for another), but — as said above, if the distinction here is truly ‘inherent:incidental’ — Vernon Dursley's profession as a director of a firm which makes drills is signalled as inherent.\\
		The alternative one would expect should be ‘\C{Roedd Vernon Dursley yn gyfarwyddwr cwmni cynhyrchu driliau o'r enw Grunnings}’ (an ‘\C{yn}’-structure).
	\item Ex.~\ref{ex:yn chwaer}: One would expect the fact that two persons are sisters to be an inherent one (in our culture, a person cannot cease to be one's kin), but the fact that Lily Potter and Petunia Dursley are sisters is signalled as an incidental one.\\
		The alternative: ‘\C{Chwaer i Mrs Dursley oedd Mrs Potter}’.
\end{itemize}
These two examples can be explained by the story itself: Vernon Dursley is portrayed as a dull person, a person to whom being a director of a firm which makes drills may be a significant character; Petunia Dursley alienates herself from her sister, pretending she doesn't have a sister at all (therefore, she is not her sister \emph{inherently}). This explanation makes sense, but (as said above) this topic requires a fuller description in Welsh before one can make conclusions on translations into Welsh.

I will now present a classification of some examples after the division made by \noibidem\citet[§3]{Shisha-Halevy.A:1998:roberts}:

\subsection{\textit{oedd} ‘nominal sentence’}

\begin{examples}
	\item 1/2: \label{ex:cyfarwyddwr cwmni oedd VD}
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{\gl{Cyfarwyddwr}{director} \gl{cwmni}{company} \gl{cynhyrchu}{produce} \gl{driliau}{drills} \gl{o}{from}\gl{'r}{the} \gl{enw}{name} Grunnings \gl{\hl{oedd}}{was} Vernon Dursley, […]}
			{Mr Dursley \hl{was} the director of a firm called Grunnings, which made drills. […]}
		\end{bilingquote}

	\item 10/4 (on Dumbledore's golden clock):
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{[…] \gl{Oriawr}{watch} \gl{ryfedd}{strange} \gl{iawn}{right} \gl{\hl{oedd}}{was} \gl{hi}{she}. […]}
			{[…] It \hl{was} a very odd watch. […]}
		\end{bilingquote}
\end{examples}

\subsection{Copular pattern (?)}

\begin{examples}
	\item 10/6 — Dumbledore (on the Dursleys):
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{[…] \gl{Nhw}{they} \gl{\hl{ydi}}{$\approx$is}'\gl{r}{the} \gl{unig}{only} \gl{deulu}{family} \gl{sydd}{that is} \gl{ar ôl}{left} \gl{ganddo}{by him} \gl{erbyn}{since} \gl{hyn}{that}.’}
			{[…] They’re the only family he has left now.”}
		\end{bilingquote}

	\item 13/7:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{\gl{Yr}{the} \gl{unig}{only} \gl{beth}{thing} \gl{yr}{that} \gl{hoffai}{liked} Harri \gl{ynghylch}{about} \gl{ei}{his} \gl{olwg}{look} \gl{ei hun}{himself} \gl{\hl{oedd}}{was} \gl{y}{the} \gl{graith}{scar} \gl{fain}{fine} \gl{fain}{fine} \gl{ar}{on} \gl{ffurf}{form} \gl{mellten}{lightning} \gl{ar}{on} \gl{ei}{his} \gl{dalcen}{forehead}.}
			{{\doublechecked}The only thing Harry liked about his own appearance \hl{was} a very thin scar on his forehead which was shaped like a bolt of lightning.}
		\end{bilingquote}

	\item 13/7 (‘He had had it as long as he could remember —’):
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{[…] \gl{a}{and}\gl{'r}{the} \gl{cwestiwn}{question} \gl{cyntaf}{first} \gl{y}{that} \gl{gallai}{could} \gl{gofio}{remember}\gl{'i}{his (=its)} \gl{ofyn}{ask} \gl{i}{to} \gl{Anti}{Aunt} Petiwnia \gl{\hl{oedd}}{was} \gl{sut}{how} \gl{roedd}{was} \gl{o}{he} \gl{wedi}{after} \gl{ei}{her (=its)} \gl{chael}{get} \gl{hi}{she (=it)}.}
			{{\doublechecked}[…] and the first question he could ever remember asking his Aunt Petunia was how he had got it.}
		\end{bilingquote}

	\item 15/6 (‘Exactly why Dudley wanted a racing bike was a mystery to Harry, as Dudley was very fat and hated exercise —’):
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{[…] — \gl{\hl{hynny}}{that} \gl{\hl{yw}}{$\approx$is}, \gl{os}{if} \gl{nad}{(that) not} \gl{oedd}{was} \gl{o}{he}\hl{'n}{in} \gl{golygu}{mean} \gl{y}{that} \gl{câi}{got} \gl{ddyrnu}{thresh} \gl{rhywun}{someone}.}
			{{\doublechecked}[…] — unless of course it involved punching somebody.}
		\end{bilingquote}

	\item 200/16 — Ronan (‘Collwyn’ in the Welsh translation):
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{‘Y \gl{diniwed}{innocent} \gl{\hl{ydi}}{$\approx$is}\gl{'r}{the} \gl{dioddefwyr}{victims} \gl{cyntaf}{first},’ \gl{meddai}{he said}. ‘\gl{Felly}{so} \gl{\hl{bu}}{\gl{was}{\gram{past}}} \gl{hi}{she (=it)} \gl{yn}{in} \gl{yr}{the} \gl{amser}{time} \gl{a}{\gram{rel.}} \gl{fu}{was}, \gl{felly}{so} \gl{\hl{y mae}}{is} \gl{o hyd}{still}.’}
			{‘Always the innocent are the first victims,’ he said. ‘So it has been for ages past, so it is now.’}
		\end{bilingquote}
\end{examples}

\subsection{Circumstantially-converted nominal rheme}

\begin{examples}
	\item 1/3: \label{ex:yn chwaer}
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{\gl{\hl{Roedd}}{was} Mrs Potter \gl{\hl{yn}}{in} \gl{chwaer}{sister} \gl{i}{to} Mrs Dursley, \gl{ond}{but} \gl{doedden}{they were not} \gl{nhw}{they} \gl{ddim}{Fr. \textit{pas}} \gl{wedi}{after} \gl{cyfarfod}{meet} \gl{ers}{since} \gl{blynyddoedd}{years}; \gl{a}{and} \gl{dweud}{say} \gl{y}{the} \gl{gwir}{truth}, \gl{cymerai}{\gll{took}{\gram{impf}}} Mrs Dursley \gl{arni}{on her} \gl{nad}{that not} oedd \gl{ganddi}{by her} \gl{chwaer}{sister}, […]}
			{Mrs.~Potter \hl{was} Mrs.~Dursley's sister, but they hadn't met for several years; in fact, Mrs.~Dursley pretended she didn't have a sister, […]}
		\end{bilingquote}

	\item 8/4 — Professor McGonagall (criticising the careless behaviour of the wizards):
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{‘\gl{Ond}{but} \gl{\hl{dydi}}{isn't} \gl{hynny}{that}\gl{\hl{'n}}{in} \gl{ddim}{Fr.~\textit{pas}} \gl{rheswm}{reason} \gl{dros}{for} \gl{golli}{lose}\gl{'n}{our} \gl{pennau}{heads}. […]}
			{“But that\hl{'s} no reason to lose our heads. […]}
		\end{bilingquote}

	\item 8/5 — Professor McGonagall (on You-Know-Who):
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{[…] \gl{\hl{Ydi}}{\gll{is}{\gram{question}}} \gl{o}{he}\gl{\hl{'n}}{in} \gl{wir}{true} \gl{ei}{his} \gl{fod}{be} \gl{o}{he} \gl{\emph{wedi}}{after} \gl{mynd}{go}, Dumbledore?’}
			{[…] I suppose he really has gone, Dumbledore?”}
		\end{bilingquote}

	\item 10/2 — Professor McGonagall:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{‘\gl{\hl{Ydi}}{\gll{is}{\gram{question}}} \gl{o}{he} — \gl{\hl{Ydi}}{\gll{is}{\gram{question}}} \gl{o}{he}\gl{\hl{'n}}{in} \emph{wir}?’ \gl{gofynnodd}{asked} \gl{yr}{the} \gl{Athro}{professor} McGonagal. […]}
			{“It's — it's true?” faltered Professor McGonagall. […]}
		\end{bilingquote}

	\item 15/5 (Harry Potter tries to remember a dream he had):
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{\gl{\hl{Roedd}}{\gl{was}{\gram{3sg.}}} \gl{\hl{yn}}{in} \gl{freuddwyd}{dreem} \gl{braf}{good}.}
			{It \hl{had been} a good one.}
		\end{bilingquote}
		This example shows a translation of the ‘$X$ \emph{had been} $Y$’ English structure by the Welsh ‘\C{yn}’-structure.

	\item 129/1:
		\begin{bilingquote}
			\transline
			{\gl{Yn}{in} \gl{wir}{true}, \gl{erbyn}{since} \gl{hynny}{that} \gl{roedd}{was} Harri \gl{a}{and} Ron \gl{yn}{in} \gl{meddwl}{think} \gl{fod}{be} \gl{cyfarfod}{meet} \gl{y}{the} \gl{ci}{dog} \gl{tri}{three} \gl{phen}{head} \gl{wedi}{after} \gl{\hl{bod}}{be} \gl{\hl{yn}}{in} \gl{antur}{adventure} \gl{ardderchog}{excellent} […]}
			{[…] Indeed, by the next morning Harry and Ron thought that meeting the three-headed dog \hl{had been} an excellent adventure […]}
		\end{bilingquote}
\end{examples}



\section*{Further examination}

In addition to the topics examined above, the following ones may be of interest with respect to the theory of translation:

\begin{description}
	\item [Idiolects:]
		Rowling, as many modern authors, differentiate idiolects for different characters. One clear example is the speech of Hagrid, which is uniquely rough. It would be interesting to examine the way the translator chooses to portray the speech of each character. Moreover, it worth examining whether a dialectological parallelism exists between the ‘dialects’ of the inhabitants of Harry Potter's ‘wizarding world’ and the dialects of Wales.
	\item [Narrative tenses:]
		The preliminary examination of the \C{a+\textsc{infinitive}} construction in the text is a part of an extensive examination of narrative tenses. The Welsh tense system has similarities, as well as dissimilarities, to the English one; this rises the question of how the English tenses are translated into Welsh.
%	\item [Possession constructions:]
%		***
	\item [Presentatives:]
		‘Presentatives’\footnote{Modern and Biblical Hebrew \Hebrew{הנה} (vocalised \textit{híne}/\textit{hiné} and \textit{hinné(h)-} respectively), Italian \textit{ecco} and French \textit{voilà} and \textit{voici} are examples of presentatives.} is a grammatical feature which is absent from the (North-)West European \textit{Sprachbund} in general. English has no exact equivalent of the Welsh presentatives \C{dyma} and \C{dyna} (and \C{dacw}); yet they do occur in the Welsh translation of Harry Potter. It is interesting to examine when the translator chooses to use presentatives, and finding out if there are any ‘triggers’ in the English text causing their use.\\
		See \citet[§3]{Shisha-Halevy.A:2005:epistolary}, \citet[p.~184ff.]{Shisha-Halevy.A:1998:roberts} and \citet[Appendix~II]{Shisha-Halevy.A:1999:middle-welsh-2}.
	\item [Terms and names of the wizarding world:]
		Although this is not a linguistic matter \textit{per se}, it is interesting to see which names and terms the translator chose to translate into Welsh (and how!) and which she chose to left untranslated (whether they are English in origin or not).
	\item [The Irish translation of Harry Potter:]
		A comparative typological look at the translations of Harry Potter into Celtic languages\footnote{At the moment a Welsh translation and an Irish one (\citet{Rowling.J:2004:harry_orchloch}) are in existence.} can reveal some interesting parallelisms (and differences) in the choices made by the translators, as the Celtic languages share many common features.
	\item [Expanding the discussed topics:]~\\
		As mentioned above, the \C{a+\textsc{infinitive}} construction has to be examined in relation to other narrative tenses.

		The \C{ti}:\C{chi}:(\C{chdi}) distinction has to be more thoroughly examined, mapping all (or, at least, a considerable amount of—) social relations between the characters with regard to this distinction. Finding out whether the \C{ti}:\C{chi} relation is \emph{constant} (i.e.\ doesn't depend on the situation) or \emph{variable}, as well as if the distinction is \emph{binary} (\C{ti}:\C{chi}) or \emph{ternary} (\C{ti}:\C{chi}:\C{chdi}), is needed.

		The topic of nominal predication needs to be more fully described in Welsh before describing its use in translation.
\end{description}

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\noindent
Ariel Shisha-Halevy's articles can be found at:\\
{\url{http://ling.huji.ac.il}}
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